Sunday, March 31, 2019

Blooms Taxonomy Cognitive Domain

Blooms Taxonomy Cognitive DomainBlooms taxonomy, created by Benjamin Bloom is an positioning of learning objectives within the gentility sector for classifying and categorising directs of bright d makestairsstanding which usually takes place in a classroom put. Bloom Taxonomy consists of three special grounds k right offn as the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Benjamin Bloom identified a pecking rate of six various levels within the cognitive sphere of influence. The cognitive domain comprises of noesis and the development of intellectual skills which includes the recall or recognition of procedural patterns, concepts, and ad hoc facts which play a major role in to the development of skills and intellectual capabilities. There be six major categories in the cognitive domain which atomic number 18 sub-divided and put in order of sophistication ground on the mental process involved, the power structure starts from the simplest and ranges up to the about complex . Blooms Taxonomy six level hierarchies derives around the fact that in order for an individual to reach the near difficult and complex of social class they must master the simplest of the categorys in advance the close matchlesss pile take place. at a lower place are the six sub-divided categories of the cognitive domain which compromise of intimacy, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.Knowledge is the first off off and last(a) level in the hierarchy of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. In the cognitive domain knowledge is accumulated by the remembrance of previously learnt material. This will involve without delay bringing up previously learnt material to ones mind. The remembrance of learnt material is considered to be the simplest category in the cognitive domain. comprehension, the second category in the cognitive domain is defined as the might to grasp the meaning of material. Comprehension of materials focusses on translating material from one stratum to some opposite i.e. (words to numbers), by explaining, summarising or interpreting material. Particularly in a Higher educational dance bandting comprehension is the tool which is enables students to further their studies, in order to expand one must grasp the meaning of the material he/she might be studying. These learning outcomes go beyond the simple remembrance of material, and be the lowest level of understanding.Application in the cognitive domain is defined as the ability to apply and use previously learnt material in hot situations. At this defend it is time to apply what you have learnt and understood, and apply it to allegory situations or in cases in eminent education exams/tests. Learning outcomes in this area require a high level of understanding than those under comprehension.Analysis the fourth category in the cognitive domain refers to the ability to break down material into its component so that its structure whitethorn be unde rstood. This whitethorn include the identification of various parts, and recognition of the organisational principles involved. At this level in the cognitive domain learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level this is broadly speaking because it requires a higher understanding of both the content and the structural public figure of the material.Synthesis- at this stage in the cognitive domain we compose a structure or pattern from various elements. I.e. putting parts or segments together to form a complete whole, with high emphasis on creating a new-sprung(prenominal) structure. For deterrent example in a higher education setting a student might put various methods of revision to perfect or improve the chances of getting the maximum marks in their exam.Evaluation- The nett and most complex category in the cognitive domain is evaluation. In this category we look upon the ability to judge the value of material. At this stage judgments are based on a certain crite ria. Our Judgments may be based on internal criteria or external criteria. The learning outcome in this category is at its most highest because it contains elements from each category in the cognitive domain.Observing the six categories of the cognitive domain in Blooms Taxonomy has sacrificen me long insight of how each of these categories falls within the pathway of a computer program of study in higher education. Category one (Knowledge) is not notwithstanding vital part in a higher education setting, exclusively it applies to almost any situation. Knowledge falls well within the stepping stones in higher education because to complete various tasks in a higher education setting some insight is necessary as to what tasks you may be undertaking. Category two, three and four (Comprehension, Application and Analysis) are besides an essential because in order to apply material it has to be first mighty understood. For example in order for one to achieve high marks in his/her ex ams the syllabus has to be correctly understood before it can be applied actually in an exam. The two final and most complex categories within the cognitive domain do verily apply in a higher educational setting, this is because in flavor numerous aspects do not go to plan. Evaluation is critical in all tasks we may undertake in higher education. This is because in order to better something an evaluative process should ideally take place this is because at this stage in the cognitive domain you have certain set criteria as to what everything should be based on. So if your tasks do not abide your standard an evaluation process will take place as to what could be done so that this concomitant task meets your determined criteria. I consider myself to be at the (Application) stage in the cognitive domain, this is mostly because I can easily understand and apply the material.plagiarizationPlagiarism is defined as the practice of taking someone elses work or ideas and passing them off as ones own. There are many forms of buccaneering however the two distinct types of piracy are designed and unwilled. well-read buccaneering is when an individual understands he/she is fully plagiarising however still conduct to do so. However un learned piracy is deemed as plagiarism, when an individual does not understand they are plagiarising as they may have a shortsighted understanding of what constitutes as plagiarism, and they maybe incorrectly placing denotations.There are many acts that one might constitute as plagiarism both learned and unintentional. Below I will present a list of acts that are considered or are deemed as plagiarism.The first act of intentional plagiarism is where an individual might pay certain essay bank on the internet to complete their assignments for you. This is a serious case of intentional plagiarism this is because hiring a company do you work. Implies that the work is practically someone elses and you had no intent of actually comple ting the work yourself so you deliberately plagiarised. some other act of intentional plagiarism is when an individual deliberately copies text or passages from class peers, colleagues or friends without their knowledge or consent. This is deemed to be intentional plagiarism because reproducing a piece of work which is exactly the aforementioned(prenominal) as another person is stealing curiously without their consent.Plagiarism has been an ever increasing problem, especially due to the quick and easy access to various passages and text all over the world within a click of a button. angiotensin-converting enzyme particular act deemed as intentional plagiarism is when an individual deliberately copies a passage of text and then rearranges the word so it seems as if it his own work. This form of plagiarism is one of the most common and wide spread.One form of unintentional plagiarism is paraphrasing without citing, this is when an individual rearranges the sentence to have the sam e meaning however they forget to reference it accordingly.Another form of unintentional plagiarism is building on someones thoughts or ideas without correctly inserting a citationThere are many various ways one can follow in order to pr horizontalt plagiarism both intentional unintentional. In order to prevent unintentional plagiarism one should correctly paraphrase and add citations correctly. Furthermore in order to prevent intentional to avoid unintentional plagiarism print screen the webpage so that even though the webpage may be removed one still has induction that the webpage existed so therefore this will prevent being acc employ of plagiarism.Harvard Referencing brassThe Harvard referencing system also known as parenthetical referencing is one form of a citation style. Referencing is a system that allows you to acknowledge your witnesser, i.e. whenever a secondary coil persons ideas, theories, quotes, facts or any other evidence and information used, references have to b e made to acknowledge the fact information has been used. Referencing is also used to give credit to its author and to help readers of your work to find the original source of information or ideas that you have used. Citation is used particularly in higher education and in other forms in an academic setting. Below are two examples of Harvard referencing one example is from a book and the other example is from a website mannikin of Harvard Referencing of a websiteWILLIAMS, R., 2010. Universities and hit by industrial action online. Available http//www.guardian.co.uk/education/2010/may/06/cutsandclosures-middlesexuniversity accessed 6 May 2010Example of Harvard Referencing of a book from a single authorStevens (1996, p.2) pointed out that referencing is a skill all students should develop.Harvard Referencing slightly differs from a website to other sources. Below I will explain how the Harvard system works. If you look above at example 1 you will firstly notice the make believe of th e author. The author is the first step in referencing the Harvard way if the name of the author is not effrontery then the provider of the website should be used as the substitute to the author. The following step is to now add the date, the date is usually found close to the authors name, the date is usually when the author first published his clause. Once the name of the author and date has been added you now have to follow by adding the patronage of the website so in this case the title was Universities and hit by industrial action. If you can see above the title is in italics, the title which is used by the website should be placed in italics. The next step is to now actually add the websites URL address which in this case is http//www.guardian.co.uk/education/2010/may/06/cutsandclosures-middlesexuniversity. The URL address is the actual location were you obtained the passage or text. Following the URL address, the date you viewed the website has to places in square brackets last. This ideally represents when you viewed the article in case the article is removed or edited on the way.

Saturday, March 30, 2019

Determination of crude fiber

Determination of petroleum fiberDietary fiber abide be defined as sum of polysaccharides and lignin that argon not digested by human digestive enzymes. The major components of dietary fiber are cellulose, noncellulose such(prenominal) as hemicelluloses and pectin, lignin, and hydrocolloids (gums, mucilages, and algal polysaccharides). Human nourishmentstuffs contain mainly noncellulose polysaccharides, some cellulose and myopic lignin. The average proportions of noncelluloe polysaccharides. Cellulose and lignin for common foodstuff are about 70%, 20% and 10% respectively(Laura and other 2003).The crude fiber mode was developed in the 1850s to estimate indigestible carbohydrate in animal prevails. Since an easy election was not available, fiber in human foods was measured as crude fiber until the early 1970s (except for Southgate in England). Crude fiber rule is one of the gravimetric method that measures the organic food resiimputable remain after sequential digestion with 0.255N sulphuric stifling and 0.313N sodium hydroxide ancestors, followed by oven-drying at 104C overnight and ignition in muffle furnace at 600C for 3 hours. The compounds removed are predominantly protein, sugar, starch, lipids and portions of both the structural carbohydrates and lignin. Crude fiber method measures variable amounts of the cellulose and lignin in the sample, alone hemicelluloses, pectins, and added gums or hydrocolloids are solubilised and removed. Therefore, crude roughage measurement drastically underestimates dietary fibre in foods since it measures only cellulose and lignin. As a result, crude fiber method is only adequate for endeavor of fiber in animal feed product, but not suitable for human food abstract as lignin is significant to human health (James N.BeMiller 2003)Determination of carbohydrateCarbohydrates are main(prenominal) in food because carbohydrates provide energy, enhance immune function and bear out cellular communications. Carbohydrat es are converted into energy to allow our cells to function. There are two major types of carbohydrates such as complex carbohydrates and simple carbohydrates. convoluted carbohydrates are glycogen in human tissue and cellulose in seed down tissues. Simple carbohydrates are monosaccharide such as glucose, fructose, galactose and disaccharides standardised maltose, lactose and sucrose (DeWayne McCulley 2005). The most important sources of carbohydrates are plant food such as fruits, vegetables and grains. Milk and milk products contain the carbohydrates lactose (milk sugar) but meat, fish and poultry have no carbohydrate at all. iodine gram of carbohydrates has four calories. To find the number of calories from the carbohydrates in a serving, cipher the number of grams of carbohydrates by four. For example, one whole bagel has about 38 grams of carbohydrates, equal to about 152 calories (Carol Ann Rinzler 2006). The determination of carbohydrates is one of the most frequently i ndispensable analyses in the food analysis laboratory and has considerable application in nutritional and biochemical studies. The variety of food and beverage products from food manufacturers continues to expand. This variety, combines with raised expectations of quality and consistency from the consumer, has created a need for analytical methods that provide circumstantial data on the composition of both raw materials and final products. Analyses for carbohydrates must(prenominal) be applicable to simple ingredients, complex processed foods, and fractions or components separated in nutritional studies. (Eliasson, 2006) There are several methods of carbohydrate analysis and can be divided into physical methods and chemical method. Physical methods by and large determined some overall features of the sugars in food such as total carbohydrates. The physical methods include refractometry, polarimetry and hydrometry. Un wish well physical methods, chemical methods are able to dete rmined more than specific features, for example, reducing sugar. In this experiment, carbohydrates in foods were determined by difference after knowing the content of other food components. The accuracy of the by difference method depends on the determination of other food components and does not make any distinction amidst the available and nonavailable carbohydrates. The advantage of this method is carbohydrates content can be measured without carry out an experiment (Nollet 2004).Determination of Vitamin CAscorbic acid (vitamin C) which forms cementing mall such as collagen in the body is important in vex healing and increasing resistance to infections. This vitamin also enhances the absorption of non-heme iron and whitethorn protect against some cancers and cardiovascular disease. Milk contains only a little amount of ascorbic acid (0.94 mg per 100g milk). Processing or film to mania such as pasteurization reduces the vitamin C content of milk. The current RDA for vitam in C for most adults is 60mg per day (Gregory and others 1999). Besides, pregnant women need a moderate increase for vitamin C during last trimester to meet the needs of the growing fetus. The vitamin C content in food is strongly influenced by length of time on the shelf and in the storage and cooking practice likes the heating and exposure to copper or iron or to mildly alkaline conditions destroys the vitamin (World wellness Organization 1998).The AOAC method for determining vitamin C in food is found upon the reduction of the dye 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) with ascorbic acid in an acid solution. DCPIP is used as the titrant because it only oxidizes ascorbic acid and not other substances that might be present. Besides, it acts as a self-indicator in the titration because it changes to another color when in excess analyte (ascorbic acid). In the oxidized form, DCPIP is purplish-blue in neutral or alkaline solution, and pink in acid solution the reduced form of dye is c olorless. The solution pull up stakes remain colorless as more DCPIP is added until all of the ascorbic acid has reacted. As soon as the next drop of DCPIP solution is added at the solution and the solution is turn to light red or pink due to the excess DCPIP, the end point of the titration is reached. Hence, the ascorbic acid is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid by DCPIP solution. However, this method is not capable of determining dehydroascorbic acid content that presents more or less 80% of vitamin C activity shown by ascorbic acid. The plot below show the reaction between ascorbic acid and 2, 6-dichloroindophenol (DCPIP). (Ball 1997)Redox reaction between ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP).Before using DCPIP to quantitatively measure vitamin C, the stringency of the DCPIP solution must be known. The concentration of DCPIP solution can be determined by react the DCPIP solution with a solution of ascorbic acid with a known concentration. This is known as standardizing the solution and it must be done before determine the concentration of vitamin C of sample. The vitamin is very allergic to oxidative deterioration, which is enhanced by high pH and by the front man of ferric and cupric ions. For this reason, the entire analytical procedure needs to be performed at low pH and in the presence of a chelating factor if necessary. (Ronald and Landen 2003) For example, ascorbic acid is extracted from food and titrated with the indicator in the presence of acid like oxalic acid. These acids are used to preserve the correct acidity for reaction and to void auto oxidation of ascorbic acid.1. James N.BeMiller. 2003. Carbohydrate Analysis. In S. Suzanne Nielsen. Food Analysis. tertiary ed. New York Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p144-169.2. Laura E. Matarese, Michele M. Gottschlich. 2003. Contemporary nutrition support practice a clinical guide. 2nd ed. ground forces Saunders. 173-175p.3. Carol Ann Rinzler. 2006. Nutrition fo r Dummies. 4th ed. USA Wiley Publishing. 102p.4. DeWayne McCulley. 2005. Death to Diabetes The Six Stages of Type 2 Diabetes Control Reversal. South Carolina BookSurge. 56p.5. 3. Ann-Charlotte Eliasson. 2006. Carbohydrates in food. 2nd Edition. USA CRC Press. 2-3p.6. Handbook of Food Analysis Physical mental picture and Nutrient Analysis. 2nd ed. USA Marcel Dekker, Inc. 387-393p.7. G. F. M. Ball. 1997. Bioavailability and analysis of vitamins in foods. united Kingdom Chapman Hall. 521-523 p.8. Gregory D. Miller, Judith K. Jarvis, Lois D. McBean. 1999. Handbook of dairy foods and nutrition. 2nd ed.USA CRC Press. 24p9. World Health Organization. 1998. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. China Sun Fung. 135-137p.10. Ronald R.E and W.O.Landen, Jr, 1999. Vitamin Analysis. In S. Suzanne Nielsen. Food Analysis. tertiary edition. New York Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York. p 182.

Literature Review On Soil Erosion

Literature review On res publica eating awayThe Latin word erodere, (meaning to gnaw away) is the transmission line of the word wearing away (Roose, 1996). dry shoot down Erosion is the personal remotion of rise up skank by respective(a) agents, including f on the wholeing pelting confuses, piss full stoping everyplace the change profile and gravitational pull (Lal 1990). The basis intelligence Society of the States defines eroding as the wearing away of the degrade fold by running piss, wind, ice or new(prenominal) geo lumberical agents, including such routinees as gravitational creep (SCSA, 1982). Physical eating away involves the detachment and transportation of indissoluble fault particles (sand, silt and thoroughgoing topic). Removal of soluble physical as dissolved substances is called chemical substance corrosion and this whitethornbe variationerd by surface outpouring or subsurface diminish where the water moves from one social class to an other(prenominal) within the dry primer coat profile (Lal 1990). match to ASCE, 1975, the physical processes in discolouration corroding include detachment of priming particles, their transportation and subsequent evidence of discolouration sediments filiation by raindrop impact and runoff over the domain surface. Rainfall is the most master(prenominal) detaching agent (Morgan and Davidson 1986 Lal, 1990) followed by overland scat in entraining turd particles (Lal 1990).The process of filth eating away occurs in trine main steps, detachment of colly particles, transportation and deposition of speck particles dispirited gear by raindrop impact and runoff over the stigma surface (ASCE 1975 Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining belowcoat particles (Lal, 1990). Soil eating away abases nastiness productivity by physical acquittance of top contend, reduction in grow depth and release of water. In contrast colly, realm de pletion means privation or decline of blur fertility collect to crop removal or removal of nutrients by eluviations from water passing through the defect profile (Lal, 1990). Sedimentation however, characters off site personal set up like debasement of basins, accumulation of silts in water reservoirs and burial of low-lying productive argonas and other problems (Lal, 1990). Sediments is the main cause of pollution and eutrophication (Lal, 1990). fit in to Lal 1990, imperfection degradation may be caused by accele numberd primer wearing, depletion through intensive land use, deterioration in soil structure, changes in soil pH, take away, salt accumulation, get up up of toxic elelments such as aluminum or zinc, luxuriant inundation leading to reduced soil conditions and poor aeration.Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible form of land degradation (Lal, 1977 El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982). Soil corroding and soil way out , correspond to Lal (1 990) throw off unfortunate effects on agriculture because they deplete the soils productivity and diminish the resourse base.2.2 Soil Erosion ProcessGeologic corrosion crowd out be caused by a number of instinctive agents including rainfall, flowing water and ice, wind and the the kitty suit of soil bodies under the action of gravity which cause the unsnarled or dissolved earthy and rock materials to be removed from a place and eventually deposited to a new location (Lal,1990 Morgan and Davidson, 1986). The Soil Science Society of America (SCSA, 1982) described geologic erosion as the form or natural erosion caused by geologic processes acting over long tips and aft(prenominal)mathing in the wearing away of mountains, the building up of flood tide plains, coastal plains. Etc. The slow and constructive natural soil erosion process has been signifi lavtly accele pointd by human activities of poor body politic practices, overgrazing, ground clearing for construction, logg ing and mining (Lo, 1990). Accelerated erosion not only alludes the soil but too the environment and is the primary cause of soil degradation (Lal, 1990). Agriculture has been identified as the primary cause of accelerated soil erosion (Pimentel, 1976).2.3 Soil Characteristics in the TropicsExtremes of humour and wide variety of p arent materials cause great contrast of soil properties in the tropics from soils in other temperate regions. In the tropics soils are steeply variable and diverse like the vegetation (Sanchez and Buoi, 1975 train Wambeke, 1992). The main soil references are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropical soils low in weatherable minerals and introductory cations (sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) evented from continuous weathering of rear materials (Lo, 1990). The ability of these soils to keep plant nutrients is largely dependent on the humus satisfy found in plant bio plurality and the fundamental social fun ction (Rose,1993). The inactivity of soil mineral constituents (kaolin and sesquioxides) in these soils, causes deficiency in crop nutrients, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, limits active relationship with ingrained social function and excessively immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a condition which are laid-backly toxic to plant grow (Lo, 1990). Crop production in equatorial soils are constrained by primarily aluminum- derived soil acidity and sterileness but chiefly their physical properties are favourable (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropic soils welcome moderate to high permeability under natural conditions, but supersensitised to slaking and development of impermeable sauciness upon action of raindrops and as a result runoff affixs with continuous snug (Lal, 1982). This crusting cause insignifi butt endt reduction of filtration rate, change order of magnitude water runoff which leads to acceleration of soil erosion (Falayl and Lal, 1979).It is weighty to put down however that heavy and intense rains cause austere erosion in the tropics (Morgan, 1974 Wilkinson 1975 Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975 Lal 1976 Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977 Bois, 1978 Sheng 1982).2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep SlopeAccording to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a hawk incline great than 20%. It is of the essence(p) to note however that flat undulating lands score a great authority for crop production and untaught development. Due to the possibility of soil erosion and the problem of mechanization, the steep areas are considered fringy for agriculture production (Lal, 1990).The tight topography in steepland agriculture restricts mechanizations of operations therefore, reducing all agricultural activities (land preparation, cultivation and harvesting), limiting the farmer in home and efficiency. Inputs such as fertiliser and pesticides have to be carried manually by the farmer. As a resulted they are used scarcely. Observably either increase in the use of these agricultural inputs provide result in decline in he farmers pelf from the generally lower agricultural field (Benvenuti, 1988). For all these reasons steepland farmers tend to constrict in high value crop production of limited scale (Ahmad, 1987 Ahmad 1990). It is important to note however that farmers prefer steepslopes ascribable to cultural elapse cultivation, planting and harvesting can be done in an honest fashion (Williams and Walter, 1988). Futher more(prenominal) than subsistence farmers are found on steep slopes because of more favourable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and higher(prenominal) reliability of rainfall. (Hurni, 1988).In the tropics, removal of forest vegetation causes excessive leaching and accelerated soil nutrient button. Being highly weathered soil types , their contained minerals generally have poor ability to retain sorbed nutrients against leaching. mud soils with high residualmiron content s are considered superior in resistance to runoff caused soil erosion thus, soils emanated from basic igneous rocks and red soils developed from chalky rocks are strongly aggregated due to the cementing property of iron oxides, hence, soil erosion is expected to be little than for most other soils. to a fault soils developed from fragmentary volcanic materials with andic properties are resistant to soil erosion (Sheng, 1986 Ahmad, 1987 Ahmad, 1990 Lal, 1990). Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered highly erodible. Soils produced from these rocks are high in twain sand or silt fraction, and ashes minerals and iron oxides are generally insufficient as cementing agents for a stable-structured soil. These parent materials are generally bounteous in muscovite occurring in all soil particle- size of it fractions. Micah-rich soils are weak-structured, and thus raindrops can intimately dislodged the weak aggregates, while the clay fraction outspr ead in water. The resulting mica flakes settling on their flat axes in the water film on the soil surface causes soil crusting. The administration of soil crusts further restricts water entry into the soil (Ahmad and Robin, 1971 Sumner, 1995), resulting to presidency of a untold greater volume of runoff water, a condition which leads to further sedition of soil aggregates and transport of colloidal soil material (Ahmad, 1987 Ahmad 1990). Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange leading to anaerobic soil conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical impedance to seedling emergence (Ahmad 1987 Ahmad, 1990).Steep slope cultivation can cause certain in stableness in the ecological system with twain onsite and offsite detrimental impacts (El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987). Soil, climate, land use and farming systems affect the extent and the degree of severity of soil erosion. However, regard slight of soil and climatical conditions, intensivel y used steeplands in densely populated regions experience severe soil erosion problem.Land use influences the degree of severity of soil erosion on steeplands. Uncontrollable grazing or over grazing, exensive and black cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for severe soil erosion in unprotected arable lands (Roose, 1988 Liao et al 1988). Ahmad (19871990) reportd soil loss of approximately great hundred t0 180 tonnes per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, annual soil loss of cc t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from slope dulcorate cane plantations in central and north Queensland (Sallaway, 1979 Mathews and Makepeace 1981). in that respect are dickens types of soil erosion associated with the Caribbean region, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass movement associated with steepland agriculture and the severity being strongly influenced by the parent materials. Land clearing (example deforestation) and crop production can influenc e land slipping particularly in the early set apart of the wet season when the cleared soil wets faster due to vividness of the soil above rock. Serious dislocations, crop loss and destruction of any mechanical anti erosion devices can result from this form of mass movements. Due to drastic changes in hydrological conditions experienced by land course prone already to slipping and cleared for agriculture for the first quantify land slippage would be of customary experience (Ahmad 1987 Ahmad 1990).Gullying is another common form of soil erosion that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on sandy soils, volcanic soils and vertisols, which are all porous materials. Soils easily attain saturated conditions upon the fast entry of water, consequently breaking the material and ultimately, leading to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this soil erosion in steeplands by allowing rapid soil wetting upon the start of the wet season . Farming activities though unsuitably oriented field boundaries, foot tracks and the lack of provision for disposal of surface water are slightly main causes of gullying, even on soils not prone to this tpe of steepland soil erosion (Ahmad 1987Ahmad 1990).Since steeplands are traditionally considered marginal for agricultural crop production, most research on soil erosion and soil conservation has been done on either flat land or rolling land with a maximum slope of or so 20%(Lal, 1988).2.5 Factors Affecting Soil ErosionThe causes of soil erosion have been intensively discussed during the past 40 years. Soil erosion is a natural process that is enhanced by human activity (Richter, 1998) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land uses. In addition to human activities, soil erosion processes are similarly caused by morphometric characteristics of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of soils and soil surfaces.When rainwater reaches the s oil surface it will either visualize the soil or run off. runoff occurs when the rainfall meretriciousness exceeds the percolation capacity of the soil. urine erosion is the result of the spreading action of rain drops, the transporting power of water and similarly the vulnerability of the soil to spreading and movement (Baver and Gardner, 1972). The effects of soil erosion is as well classified definition of gullies and description of gully development is given by Morgan (1996), as substantially as Hudson (1995) who additionally focuses on individual cases of the development of gullies. Toy et al (2002) give comminuted definitions of soil erosion features and processes such as sheet erosion and inter- running play erosion, rill erosion, as headspring as ephemeral and permanent gully erosion.Rill erodibility depends both controlly and indirectly on soil properties such as heap density, natural carbon and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange complex , soil pH and experimental conditions such as wet content, aging of prewetted soil and quality of eroding water (Rapp,1998). Govers (1990) found that runoff erosion resisitance of a loamy material was extremely sensitive to variation in the initial moisture content and to a lesser extent to changes in stack density.The process of water erosion can be separated into devil components, rill and interrill erosion (Young and Onstad, 1978). Interrill erosion (sheet erosion) is mainly caused by raindrop impact and removes soil in a thin almost imperceptible layer (surrogate, 1989). In interril erosion the flow of water is generally unconfined, except mingled with soil clods and covers much of the soil surface. As the velocity of flow increases the water incises into the soil and rills forms (Evans,1980).Rill erosion begins when the eroding capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the soil particles to resistant detachment by flow (Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998). Soil is det ached by headcut advance from knickpoints (De Ploey, 1989 Bryan, 1990), rill sailplaning sloughing and hydraulic shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998) as well as by slumping by undercutting of side walls and scour hole formation (Van Liew and Saxton, 1983). These processes are usually combined into a detachment prediction comparability as a function of medium shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998). When the rills develop in the landscape, a three to five fold increase in the soil loss commonly occurs (Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984).2.5.1 Vegetative FactorsThe effects of vegetation can be classified into three catergoriesThe interception of raindrops by the cover (DHuyvetter, 1985). Two effects are associated with this. Firstly, part of the intercepted water will gasify from the leaves and stems and thus reduce runoff. Secondly, when raindrops strike the vegetation, the nil of the drops is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the soil surfac e. The interception percentage depends on the type of crop, the growth stage and the number of plants per unit area.A well distributed, close growing surface vegetative cover will slow down the rate at which water flows down the slope and will as well reduce constriction of water (DHuyvetter, 1985). As a result, it will ebb the erosive action of running water.There is also the effect of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which results in a stable soil structure and increased percolation that reduces runoff and decreases erosion (DHuyvetter, 1985). Increased permeability also reduces erosion as a result of in increased water percolation due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the topsoil also counteract crusting.2.5.2 Rainfall FactorsRaindrop size, shape, duration of a coerce and wind speed interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall (DHuyvetter, 1985). The erosivity of rainfall is explicit in terms of kinetic energy and is affec ted by various factors.According to Wischmeier and Smith (1965), the long suit of rainfall is closely related tally e kinetic energy, according to the regression equationE = 1.213 + 0.890 log IWhereE = the kinetic energy (kg.m/m2.mm)I = rainfall intensity (mm/h)Raindrop size, dissemination and shape all influence the energy momentum of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson (1943) reported an increase in median drop size with increase in rain intensity. The relationship between mean drop size (D50) and rainfall is given byD502.23 I 0.182 (inch per hour).The median size of rain drops increases with low and medium intensity fall, but declines slightly for high intensity rainfall (Gerrard, 1981). The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is also related to the velocity of the raindrops at the time of impact with the soil (DHuyvetter, 1985). The outdistance through which the rain drop must fall to maintain storage velocity is a function of drop size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal velocity according to the equationEk = IV2/2Where Ek = energy of the rain stormI = IntensityV= Velocity of raindrop forrader impactEllison (1945) developed an equation showing that the relationship between the soil detached, terminal velocity, drop diameter and rainfall intensityE = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63Where E = relative full(a) of soil detachedK = soil eternalV = velocity of raindrops (ft/sec)d = diameter of raindrops (mm)I = rainfall intensity2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall intensity on runoff and soil lossAccording to Morgan (1995), soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface and the contribution of rain to runoff. If rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity of the soil, no surface runoff occurs and the infiltration rate would equal the rainfall intensity (Horton, 1945) as sited by Morgan (1995). If the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate equals the infiltration capacity and the excess rainfall forms surface runoff.According to Morgan (1995), when the soil is unsaturated, the soil matric potential is negative and water is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this reason, under saturated conditions sands may produce runoff very quickly although their infiltration capacity is not exceeded by the rainfall intensity. Intensity partially controls hydraulic conductivity, increasing the rainfall intensity may cause conductivity to rise so that although runoff may have formed promptly at relatively low rainfall intensity, higher rainfall intensities do not always produce greater runoff (Morgan, 1995). This mechanism explains the reason why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall intensities (Nassif and Wilson, 1975).2.5.3 Soil FactorsAccording to Baver et al, (1972), the effect of soil properties on water erosion can be in two ways Firstly, certain properties destine the rate at which rainfall enters the soil. Secondly, some properties affect the resistance of the soil against dispersion and erosion during rainfall and runoff.The particle size distribution is an important soil property with regards to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible soils have a low clay content (DHuyvetter, 1985). Soils with more than 35% clay are often regarded as being cohesive and having stable aggregates which are resistant to dispersion by raindrops (Evans, 1980). Evans also stated that sands and coarse loamy sands are not easily eroded by water due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast soils with a high silt or fine sand fraction are very erodible.Erodibility of soil increases with the coincidence of aggregates less than 0.5mm (Bryan, 1974). Factors which contribute to aggregate stability include organic matter content, root secretions, mucilaginous gels formed by break down of organic matter, the binding of particles by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentratio n on the exchange sites of the colloids instead of a high sodium content (DHuyvetter, 1985).The depth of erosion is obstinate by the soil profile (Evans, 1980). According to Evans soil horizons below the A horizon or plough layer are often more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composition of the sub surface horizon can also have an adverse effect. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent material is unconsolidated. If resistant bedrock is near the surface only rills will develop. Soil rich in surface stones are less fictile to erosion (Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980). Stones protect the soil against erosion and also increase the infiltration of the flowing water into the soil.The antecedent soil moisture and the surface inclemency are both regarded by Evans (1980) as important soil factors touching erosion. The ability of a soil to accept rainfall depends on the moisture content at the time of the rainfall event.2.5.3.1 Factors affecting aggregate stabilitySo il structure is determined by the shape and size distribution of aggregates. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical properties of a soil and its susceptibility to division due to water forces. Their stability will have a crucial effect on soil physical properties (Lynch and Bragg, 1985). The main binding materials crowing stable aggregates in air dry state are the glueing agents in organic matter (Chaney and Swift, 1984 Tisdale and Oades, 1982) and sesquioxides (Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987).2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron OxidesThe soil used by Kemper and Koch (1966) contained relatively little free iron, although it did contribute to aggregrate stability. Their data show a sharp increase of free iron from 1 to 3%. Goldberg and Glaubic (1987) cerebrate that Al-oxides were more effective than Fe-oxides in stabilizing soil structure. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size particles in a sheet form as opposed to the spherical form of Fe-particles.Shain berg, Singer and Janitzky (1987) compared the effect of aluminum and iron oxides on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil.2.5.3.1.2 essential MatterOrganic matter can bind soil particles together into stable soil aggregates. The stabilizing effect of organic matter is well documented. Little detailed information is available on the organic matter content required to sufficiently strengthen aggregates with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and containing illite or montmorrillionite, so as to prevent their dispersion in water (Smith, 1990). High humus content makes the soil less susceptible to the unfavourable influence of sodium (Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953). Kemper and Koch (1966) also found that aggregate stability increased with an increase in the organic matter content of soils. A maximum increase of aggregate stability was found with up to 2% organic matter, after which aggregate stability increased very little with further incr eases in organic matter content.2.5.3 Slope FactorsSlope characteristics are important in determining the standard of runoff and erosion ( DHuyvetter, 1985). As slope gradient increases, runoff and erosion usually increases (Stern, 1990). At low slopes due to the low overland flow velocities, detachment of soil particles from the soil surface into the water layer is due to detachment alone (Stern, 1990). Additionally, at low slope gradients, particles are disperse into the air in random directions unlike the case with steeply sloping land where down slope splash occurs (Watson and Laflen, 1985).As slope gradient increases, the ability for surface runoff to entrain and transport sediments increases rapidly until the entrainment by the surface runoff becomes dominant contributing to sediment transport (Stern, 1990). Foster , Meyer and Onstad (1976) presented a conceptual model that showed that at lower slopes, interill transport determined erosion, while at steeper slopes, raindrop detachment determined it. Th invariant bed characteristics of sheet flow transport tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects (Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982).There are many empirical relationships relating soil transport by surface wash to slope length and slope gradient. Zingg (1940) showed that erosion varied according to the equationS = X1.6 tanB1.4Where S = soil transport cm/yrX = slope length (m)B = slope gradient (%)Studies conducted by Gerrard (1981), showed that plane and convex slopes did not differ significantly in the amount of soil lost by surface runoff, but concave slopes were less eroded.Some researchers such as Zingg (1940) and Mc Cool et al (1987) indicated that soil erosion increases exponentially with increase in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing (1940) by E = aSb where E is the soil erosion, S is the slope gradient (%) and a and b are empirical constants. The value of b ranges from 1.35 to 2.0. The othe r relationship between erosion and slope gradient for inter-rill erosion is given by Mc Cool et al (1987)E = a sin b Q+CQ is the slope angle in degreesA,b and C are empirical constants.However, even if the effect of slope gradient on erosion is well recognized, several studies indicate that the power relationship between slope gradient and soil loss over predicts interrill erosion rate by as much as two or more times (Torri, 1996Fox and Bryan, 1999), and the relationship is better described as linear.2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts2.8.1 Soil Physical PropertiesProgressive soil erosion increases the magnitude of soil related constraints for crop production. These constraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The important physical constraints caused by erosion are reduced rooting depth, loss of soil water storing capacity (Schertz et al 1984 Sertsu, 2000), crusting and soil compaction and harden of plinthite (Lal, 1988). Erosion also results in the loss of clay colloids due to inv idious removal of fine particles from the soil surface (Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). The loss of clay influences soil tilth and conformity. Exposed subsoil is often of massive structure and harder consistency than the aggregated surface soil (Lal, 1988).Development of rills and gullies may change the micro-relief that may make use of farming machinery backbreaking. Another effect of erosion is that the manangement and time of farm operations.2.8.2 Soil Chemical PropertiesSoil erosion reduces the fertility experimental condition of soils (Morgan, 1986 Williams et al., 1990). Soil chemical constraints and nutritional problems related to soil erosion include low CEC, low plant nutrients (NPK) and trace elements (Lal, 1988 Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). Massy et al (1953) reported an honest loss of 192 kg of organic matter, 10.6 kg of N and 1.8kg per ha on a Winsconsin soils with 11% slope. Sharpley and Smith (1990) reported that the mean annual loss of total P in runoff from P fertili zed watersheds is equivalent to an average of 15%, 12% and 32% of the annual fertilizer P use to wheat, mixed crop grass and peanut sorghum rotation practices respectively. Researchers (Massy et al 1953 Lal, 1975) have also reported extensive loss of N in eroded sediments.2.8.3 ProductivityQuantifying the effects on crop consequences is a difficult task. It involves the evaluation of interactions between soil properties, crop characteristics and climate. The effects are also cumulative and not observed until long after accelerated erosion begins. The degree of soil erosions effects on crop yield depends on soil profile characteristics and trouble systems. It is difficult to establish a direct relationship between rates of soil erosion and erosion induce soil degradation on the one hand and crop yield on the other (Lal, 1988).It is well know that soil erosion can reduce crop yields through loss of nutrients, structural degradation and reduce of depth and water holding capacity (Ti milin et al, 1986 Lal,1988). Loss of production in eroded soil further degrades its productivity which in turn accelerates soil erosion. The cumulative effect observed over a long period of time may lead to irreversible loss of productivity in shallow soils with hardened plinthite or in soils that respond to expensive management and additional inputs (Lal,1988).2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion.Effects of erosion include siltation of rivers, crop failure at low lying areas due to flooding, pollution of waterbodies due to the various chemicals brought by the runoff from different areas. some(prenominal) studies reported the significance of the off site effects of soil erosion on land degradation (eg. Wall and ven Den,1987 Lo, 1990 Robertson and Colletti, 1994 Petkovic et al, 1999)Rainwater washes away materials that prepare from fertilizers and various biocides (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and pesticides) which are applied in large concentrations. They reappear in gre atr quantities in the hydrosphere polluting and contaminating the water environment (Zachar,1982Withers, and Lord, 2002 Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002). Chemical pollution of water mainly by organic matter from farm fields causes rapid eutrophication in waterways (Zachar, 1982Zakova et al, 1993 Lijklema, 1995).2.8.5 Soil Erosion ModelsModelling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing soil particle detachment, transport and deposition on land surfaces (Nearing et al, 1994). Erosion models are used as predictive tools for assessing soil loss and project planning. They can also be used for understanding erosion processes and their impacts (Nearing et al 1994). There are three main types of models, empirical or statistical models, conceptual models and physically ground models (Morgan 1995, Nearing et al 1994, Merritt et al 2003). It is important to note however that there is no sharp difference among them.2.8.5.1 physically Based ModelsThese models are based on solving fundamental physical equations describing stream flow and sediment and associated nutrient generations in a peculiar(prenominal) catchment (Merritt et al ., 2003). They are developed to predict the spatial distribution of runoff and sediment over land surfaces during individual storms in addition to total runoff and soil loss (Morgan, 1995). Physically based models are also called process based models (Morgan, 1995) as they rely on empirical equations to determine erosion processes. These models use a particular differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of conservation of matter as it moves through space over time. The common physically based models used in water quality studies and erosion include The areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) (Beasley et al., 1980), Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) (Knisel, 1980), Griffith University Erosion System Template (GUEST) (Misra a nd Rose, 1996), European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM) (Morgan, 1998), Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques (PERFECT) (Littleboy et al., 1992) and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) (Laflen et al., 1991).2.8.5.2 Empirical M

Friday, March 29, 2019

Impact of Technological Advancement on Agricultural Industry

Impact of proficient Advancement on Agricultural IndustryTHE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL forward motion ON THE AGRICULTURALINDUSTRY IN GHANA AND AFRICAINTRODUCTION1. scientific advancement in agriculture has brought grand stinting and social benefits to the population at large. Current trends overly provide numerous assurance that the unavoidable growth in nutrition production can be achieved with move application of modern engineering science, a fact acknowledged by the viands and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations (UN) (FAO, 2009). gibe to Motes, 2010, individuals in the United States engage less than ten per cent of their in practice on diet while umpteen fixing African countries including Ghana spend close to half of their income on nourishment. This is beca hold of petty(a) agricultural productivity with its associated high cost of viands items, a fact blamed on traditional system of farming.2. Traditional farmers design conservative farming processes. The technology and management systems involved be very much characterized by lack of access to, or reluctance to ingestion fresh information about production, management, public or commercial assistance. On the contrary, in modern agricultural systems, farmers apply technology and information to control near components of the system (Motes, 2010). Much success of modern systems depends on the development and victuals of soil fertility through with(predicate) the specific provision of nutrients when they are eat up machine power and technology to create soil conditions necessary to labor plant growth with minimal disturbance and soil loss (Motes, 2010).3. An beta modern agricultural technology that has gained prominence and much attention is ergonomics. biotech is a technology based on genetic engineering or modification of garments. It allows the routine development of genetically limited (GM) plants in which Deoxyribonucleic harsh (DNA) from any source can be transferred to specific arranges (James, 2001).4. There are divergent views on ergonomics as a sustainable technology for improved agricultural production. In recent times, concerns have been raised in Ghana about the benefits and/or potentiality risk of biotech and GM food to society. The purpose of this paper is to examine the benefits and risks/ untoward do of biotechnology and GM food to Ghana. This paper entrust limit its scope to the benefits, potential risks, and policy theoretical account for the implementation of biotechnology and then make some recommendations.AIM5. This paper seeks to examine the potential impact of biotechnology in the agricultural sector in Ghana and Africa with the view to making recommendations.BENEFITS OF bioengineering AND GENETICALLY modified FOOD6. Biotechnology combines cellular and bio molecular practices to develop technologies and products that aid improve the lives and vigour of our globe. Biological processes of microorganisms hav e been in use for over 6,000 years to create suitable food products, such(prenominal) as bread and cheese (www.bio.org). It offers opportunities to accelerate the efficiency and extent of further crop improvement by the transfer of genes conferring vindication to pests, diseases, herbicides and surroundal stress, as wellhead as forest traits such as improved post-harvest storage, flavour, nutritionary heart and colour (James, 2001).7. Biotechnology, varying in scope, scale and practice in many developing countries, is full of entrepreneurial opportunities for the technological progress of the developing world. Its image in the economic convertation of Africa is well noted in academician and public dialogue (FAO 2001). Contemporary agriculture using biotechnology gives massive monetary benefits to consumers by improving victuals standards as food p sieves drop. Additionally, it increases incomes because it allows damp purchasing power for other consumer goods, education, health care, etc. It is globally cognise that the growth of modern food system has been vital to the improvement of living standard in todays world (Motes, 2010).8. The use of biotechnology to modify the nutritional make-up of crops shows promise as a kernel for reducing malnutrition in developing countries including Ghana. While currently in inquiry stages, modifications such as these could significantly improve the diets of hundreds of millions of people who live primarily on mono crops (PEW 2004). Also, biotechnology uses numerous processes and skills to change comparatively large, unpreserved and inedible raw ingredients into more valuable shelf-stable and edible nourishments. This contributes to food security by minimizing losses in the food chain whiles increasing food quality, safety, handiness and market tycoon (PEW 2004).9. Biotechnology, if effectively harnessed can fundamentally improve farming practice by dropping post-harvest loss whiles increasing crop resistance to drought. The application of tissue culture in the production of bananas for instance, has improved harvests for some farmers in split of Kenya (Mbote, 2002). In order to reap the benefits of biotechnology, collective political commitment and bequeath from all stakeholders at tell apart and regional level is required to picture adequate funding, institutional reforms to efficiently and effectively promote biotechnology in Africa.10. Biotech yields have contributed to meaningful reduction in the release of greenhouse gunman emissions from agricultural practices. Some biotech crops allow farmers to reduce pesticide use. Others allow farmers to leave crop residue on the land from one planting season to the next, providing a reduction or even elimination of the postulate to tilt the soil. The ability to leave crop residue from one year to the next also provides a natural trap for CO2 (Brookes et al, 2006). African leaders mustiness(prenominal) relieve oneself internal capa bility in science, technology and innovation so as to be able to place the sustainability of practices associated with biotechnology.11. Despite the potential benefits of this in the raw technology in improving the reliability and quality of the world food supply, public and scientific concerns have been raised about the environmental and food safety of GM crops. Thus, the successive paragraphs give examine the concerns raised by the public in developing countries including Ghana.POTENTIAL RISKS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS12. Biotechnology and GM food are associated with certain risks or concerns. These entangle food safety, environmental risks, high cost of production and untoward effects on food exports. These are examined in the ensuing paragraphs.13. Environmental Concerns. The use of biotechnology as a modern method of production has adverse effects on the environment. The technology results in ecological pollution through the accidental gene transmiss ion to weeds, formation of fresh viruses and toxins (Brookes et al, 2006).14. pabulum Safety. According to Codex Aliment Arius Commission, 2009, food safety is a adept discipline that delivers guarantee that food will not be calumniatory to the customer when cooked or eaten according to its in track downed use. Biotechnology and GM food brings about change in nutritional class of foods, possible toxicity and potential allergy issues, and and so do not guarantee food security (Uzogara, 2000).15. High Cost of Production. The cost of production of genetically modified plants and animals are high and need a lot of initial investment. To cohere back the money that was invested into these productions, governments have introduced the idea of patents. In addition, the seeds harvested are sterile, compel farmers to always get their supply of seeds from the corporeal suppliers (ShaliniBalan 2011). As such growers in emergent nations requiring such seeds have to buy fresh seeds annuall y from the corporate suppliers owned by the developed nations (Whitman, 2000). The cost involved in such transactions cannot be overemphasised. African leaders must therefore endow in place measures to ensure financial sustainability of search and book of facts function into food items that can be owned local anaestheticly.16. Effect on Food Exports. A viable risk of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in emerging nations is the alike(p)ly loss of export opportunities. These might be because some countries encourage their marketplace from GMOs and would not import GM foods. This would lead to an soreness of the income gap between the rich and poor (ATTRA, 2006). In addition, GM monoculture crops like maize are being harvested for export and not primarily for local consumption. This may result in over dependency on occidental companies and affect the life of traditional farmers. Absence of social security system, low harvests may also affect local farmers. The present prov ision for GMOs therefore endangers local crops and biodiversity (Kaphengst et al, 2013).POLLICY FRAMEWORK FOR IMPLIMENTATION17. The President of Ghana pick out the Ghana Biosafety prompt, 2011 (Act 831) in December 2011 after the passage of the Biosafety Bill by Parliament on 21 June 2011. The Act establishes the National Biosafety Authority (NBA) as the managerial pattern that will see to the employment of all issues related to Biotechnology in Ghana. Crops approved by the NBA for confined trials include cowpea, high protein sweet potato, rice and cotton. However, cotton has been approved for field tests in Ghana. Ghanas biosafety Act is deemed user friendly as it does not comprise any labelling requirements for GM food products or strict liability provisions. The Act creates an enabling environment for the development and commercialization of biotech seeds and crops (Ashitey, 2013).18. In addition to regulations at the national level, professionals in AU countries have come tog ether with initiatives aimed at guiding or advising biotechnology regulations at the regional-level. These initiatives can be divided into two categories. The number one category comprises a basket of initiatives set up by or through networks of scientific enquiryers and research-based organizations such as national agricultural research centres. Initiatives from the first category are led by and often obligate the imprint of the research community. These initiatives include the Association for Strengthening Agricultural search in Eastern Central Africa (ASARECA). The second category comprises initiatives from regional intergovernmental organizations such as the AU itself, the Southern Africa Development partnership (SADC), the Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS), and the East African Community (EAC). Initiatives of this category tend to have input from researchers, but also involve other communities of stakeholders such as citizen groups, industry and policymake rs, with scientific civil servants often playing an set up government agency. At the AU level, for example, member countries have accepted what is called the African mannequin Law on Safety in Biotechnology. This constitutes a guiding framework for regulating biotechnology with a view to protecting Africas biodiversity, environment and health (Juma et al, 2007).CONCLUSION19. Globally, technology has played a big role in developing the agricultural industry. With this technology, plants have been engineered to survive in drought conditions. Through genetic engineering, scientists have managed to introduce traits into existing genes with a goal of making crops resistant to droughts and pests as well as quality traits such as improved post-harvest storage, flavour, nutritional content and colour (para 6).20. Biotechnology, varying in scope, scale and practice in many developing countries, is full of entrepreneurial opportunities for the technological progress of the developing worl d. Modern agriculture brings enormous economic and social benefits to consumers by improving quality of life and living standards as food costs decline (Para 7).21. The use of biotechnology to modify the nutritional make-up of crops shows promise as a means of reducing malnutrition in developing countries. The cluster of techniques that comprise biotechnology can, if effectively harnessed and applied, radically transform farming systems by reducing post-harvest loss and increasing crop resistance to drought. In order to reap the benefits of biotechnology, collective Political commitment and will from all stakeholders at state and regional level is required to pay back adequate funding, institutional reforms to efficiently and effectively promote biotechnology in Africa (Para 8 and 9).22. Despite the potential benefits of biotechnology to improve the reliability and quality of the world food supply, public and scientific concerns have been raised about the technology. These include food safety, environmental risks, high cost of production and adverse effects on food exports. African leaders must bod internal capability in science, technology and innovation so as to be able to determine the sustainability of practices associated by biotechnology. Additionally, African leaders must therefore put in place measures to ensure financial sustainability of research and extension services into food items that can be owned topically (Para 10 and 12).23. The President of the Republic of Ghana signed the Ghana Biosafety Act, 2011 (Act 831) in December 2011 following the passage of the Biosafety Bill by the Ghanaian Parliament, in June 21, 2011. The Act establishes the National Biosafety Authority (NBA) as the administrative body that will manage the implementation of all issues related to Biotechnology in Ghana. In addition to regulations at the national level, professionals in AU countries have come together in different forums and initiatives with the aim of guiding or advising biotechnology regulations at the regional-level (Para 17 and 18).24. Conclusively, it clear from the above discussion that biotechnology has a potential positive impact on the agricultural industry in Ghana and Africa as a whole and should therefore be adopted for improved agricultural productivity.RECOMMENDATIONS24. The following recommendations are madea. There is the need for collective political commitment and will from all stakeholders at state and regional level to generate adequate funding, institutional reforms to efficiently and effectively promote biotechnology in Africa (pa(Brookes et al, 2006)ra 21).b. African leaders must build internal capability in science, technology and innovation to enable them determine the sustainability of practices associated with biotechnology (Para 22).c. African countries must ensure financial sustainability of research and extension services in biotechnology related activities (Para 22).NB ADOMBIRE-AKOLOGOCaptain scholar1RESTRICTE D

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay

ghostly respective(prenominal)ism In distinguishable Cultures Sociology EssayWe argue that it is possible to empiric entirelyy test nigh of the postu upstarts of the perfect none of hand mingled with an ingrained and an foreign spiritual orientation course we investigated how mountain perceive the contrariety amidst an man-to-man and a loving spectral indistinguishability, between a interchange versus a marginal phantasmalism, and which ar the disparate motives effectively underlying these antithetic forms of spiritual indistinguishability. Using an ecological pulsation found on four types of participants egotism-categorization, results from a longitudinal sight across sextet countries provided a new framework for interpreting ghostly indistinguishability. In particular, ghostly face-to-face single(a)ity element was in superior general categorized at a sociable train by European respondents, whereas nonwestern respondents mostly rated it at an idiosyncratic level ghostlike exclusiveity was comprehend as equally central at the individual and friendly levels of categorization. Last, we canvassd the strength of dissimilar indistinguishability motives underlying these contrary forms of ghostly individuality. In the conclusions, we discuss the splendour of investigating the different ship quarteral of being sacred, and how they differ according to the special(prenominal) experience of pietism in a particular national context.Keywords sacred indistinguishability identicalness motives phantasmal orientation cross- cultural.The Categorization of Religious Identity in Different CulturesIs on that point a single form of the ghostlike sentiment? This interview was the beginning(a) interrogation of Allports seminal book The individual and his Religion (1950, p.3) it is clear level(p) in e very(prenominal)day life experience that individuals differ radically from whiz another in their ways of being spec tral and that on an individual basis person endorses the apparitional identity with a different accent. Some years later, Allport and Ross (1967) gameyly-developed the well-known annotation between inborn and extrinsic religious orientations. In this framework, the intrinsic orientation is typical of an individual who lives religiosity as something in-person, chiefly consisting of private expression, central in life and satisfying the individual have for inwardness on the other hand, the extrinsic oriented individual mainly lives the kindly tantrum of religiosity, considering theology as something peripheral in his/her human beings and that responds to kind needs, such as the need for be or for high social status. Even if it has been widely used, numerous scholars pointed protrude the weakness if this exposition and the debate on how to define religious identity is still open.Here, we focussing on both parts, which we investigated in a cross-cultural conceive of late adolescents. The first purview concerns the level of categorization of religious identity in the intrinsic orientation, religiosity is in-person and endorsed at an individual level, whereas the extrinsic type is mainly associated with a social level and thus with convocation belonging. Does this distinction correspond to real life experience of religious identity? Is it possible to distinguish between an individual (or personal) versus a social ( company belonging) religious identity?The second brass deals with the structure of identity for an intrinsic orientated individual, religious identity is central and of primary importance, while it is peripheral and superficially endorsed in the extrinsic one. Does the distinction between individual and social religious identity entail a difference between a central versus a peripheral religious identity?In sum, this empirical hit the books investigated in an ecologic framework if some stack perceive their own religious ide ntity as an individual characteristic, whereas others as a pigeonholing belonging, and the implications of this difference for the understanding of religious identity.The Level of Categorization of Religious Identity individualist and Social Religious SelfAccording to the delineation of the religious orientations provided by Allport and Ross (1967), some raft live religiosity as something personally elect and individually endorsed, whereas other commonwealth live religiosity mainly as a belonging to a social group. In the literature, research into religiosity sometimes consider the individual verbal expression of righteousness, for example solitary personal prayer (e.g. Fincham, Lambert, Beach, 2010), while at other times consider the social side of religiosity, for example the feeling of belonging to a group and the load toward this group (e.g. Vekuydecade Yildiz, 2010).Cohen, Hall, Koenig, and Meador (2005) argued that the importance of social aspects in religion hatful be viewed as a cultural characterization of reliable religious denominations (see alike Cohen, Siegel, Rozin, 2003 Hall, Meador, Koenig, 2008) for example, the emphasis on communitarian aspects (praying together, feeling a sense of belonging) is stronger in certain denominations, whereas in other denominations the emphasis is more(prenominal) than than on individual religiosity (e.g. beliefs, conversion, personal prayer). Another possible explanation for the different emphasis enthrone on the individual versus social side of religiosity can be found in general culture the differences between individualistic and collectivized cultures might as well affect differences in religious identity (Triandis, 1995). The hexad countries acceptd in the accede study all have a Christian historical background (paired with Islam in Lebanon), but they differ in levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995). Thus, we researchd the wonder rough the individual or social chara cterization of religious identity in a magnanimous sampling of different cultures, allowing to compare between individualistic and collectivistic countries.To our knowledge, no study to date has investigated with an ecologic nest what people actually feel somewhat their religious identity. A first purpose in the present study is to look at what people say when they think about their religious identity. In particular, we proposed to look at four possible levels of categorization, drawing on self- categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell, 1987) an individual level, a relational level, a teentsy group level and a large group level. We expected that some people perceive their own religious identity mainly as a personal characteristic, whereas others perceive it as a group belonging, etcetera Therefore, we examined which level of categorization people associate their religious identity with if today asked, without any sort of priming (e.g. without influence b y instructions or by item formulation).The Structure of Identity Central and Peripheral Religious SelfThe question about the centrality of religiosity in the individual self is assuming growing importance in the literature. In fact, it is argued that the individual differences in centrality of the religious self may withal result in different peaks of integration of religion in life, and thus to different outcomes (Pargament, 2002). According to Allport and Ross (1967) theorization, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity imply a different degree of centrality of religion in the individuals life the intrinsic orientation entails centrality in life, i.e. subjective importance of religion, and it is seen as a more mature form of religiosity, whereas in the extrinsic form religiosity is a more peripheral part of life. condition that the authors consider intrinsic form of religiosity mainly as individual religiosity, they also assume that the individual religious self is more central than the social (extrinsic) religious self, which is seen as more peripheral.Nevertheless, this clear-cut opposition is questioned from many parts (e.g. Pargament, 1992 Burris, 1994). Flere and Lavric (2007) argued that intrinsic religious orientation is a culturally limited American Protestant concept and concluded that it is time for scholars to approach the question of the authenticity italics added of non-intrinsic religious orientation, including social extrinsic orientation not dependable as sociability, but as a legitimate path for achieving thanksgiving and salvation (p. 529).Therefore, we argue that research into the perceived centrality of different types of religious selves would shoot clarity by being investigated cross-culturally, comparing across cultures the perceived importance of religiosity in the individual, relational or social self.In the present study, we investigated the centrality metrical as perceived subjective importance of religious self in identity in a cross-cultural sample from six nations, including both western and nonwestern countries. We examined if people who define their religious identity more in terms of individual versus relational versus social self also show different degrees of centrality of that religious identity. According to the evidence provided by Cohen and colleagues (2005), and Flere and Lavric (2007), the social aspects of religiosity can be perceived equally important as the individual aspects by the person herself thus, we expected to observe equivalent degrees of centrality at all levels of categorization.The Present StudyThis study is based on secondary winding analysis of a data set of a broader longitudinal study into culture and identity (Becker, Vignoles, Owe, Brown, Smith, Easterbrook, et al., 2012). For the purpose of the present research, we examined six different cultural contexts three European countries from different parts of Europe (UK, Belgium, Italy) and three non European countries, par ticularisedally a Middle East country (Lebanon), one in East Asia (Philippines) and one in sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia). These countries represent six very different cultural contexts in which religious identity can develop, with vary levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995) the UK, Italy and Belgium have similar high rates for individualism, while Lebanon, Philippines and Ethiopia are all collectivistic countries (Hofstede, 2001). We hypothesized that in all these contexts people can perceive their religious identity at different levels of categorization, with implications for the centrality of religious identity and for the motives underlying each type of religious self.In the previous sections of this paper, we accounted for the distinction between individual and social religious self then we overt the centrality or non centrality of religious identity and the multiplicity of motives that can be at the basis of religious identity. The study reflects this patter n and provides answers to three research questions (1) ar there individuals who categorize their religious identity as individual and others who categorize their identity as relational or social? Our hypothesis, following Cohen at al. (2005), was that participants define their religious identity both as individual and as social. (2) Is the individual religious self the most central religious identity? Our hypothesis, consistent with Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) findings that both individual and social motives can have the same importance in religious identity, was that, irrespective of culture, the perceived centrality of religious identity is equivalent at the individual, relational and group level of identity.MethodParticipants. Participants were a subsample of the broader research project, constituted by secondary school students in the UK, Belgium, Italy, Lebanon, Philippines, and Ethiopia. A total of 1,793 participants took part in the study. The mean age w as 17.5 (SD 1.1) 257 were residents in the UK, 194 in Belgium, 187 in Italy, 300 in Lebanon, 250 in Ethiopia, and 300 in the Philippines.demographic information regarding age, gender, general religiosity (mean rates for How important is religion to you?, from 1 not at all to 5 extremely) and religious belonging in each national sample are presented in circumvent 1.Table 1.Participants Characteristics and Religious Belonging by Sample.SampleBelgiumEthiopiaItalyLebanonPhilippinesUKMean Age (sd)17.7(1.1)18.1(1.0)18.1(0.8)17.3(0.5)17.9(1.3)17.1(0.8)% pistillate574561466675 religionism (1-5)2.144.772.693.734.031.92% Christian45.497.177.83489.334.1% Muslim6.01.21.661.30.70.8% Other1.23.82.08.72.4% no relig. belonging46.61.616.82.71.361Procedure. The research was introduced as a study about opinions, thoughts and feelings participants were recruited through schools and were not compensated in any way. As the present study is based on secondary analysis, the research team members who supe rvised the completion of the questionnaire were unmindful(predicate) of the researchs aim, so participants were not influenced about religion/religiosity. A questionnaire was filled out at the beginning of the school year (time 1) and, after a closure of approximately six months, another questionnaire was completed (time 2). In nations where this was an ethical requirement, maternal(p) consent was obtained in advance.Measures. Measures were included within a larger questionnaire concerning identity construction and cultural orientation (see Becker et al, 2012 Owe et. al, 2012). The questionnaires were administered in English in UK and Philippines, and they were translated from English into French (Belgium), Italian (Italy), Arabic (Lebanon) and Amharic (Ethiopia) in each country. Independent back-translations were made by bilinguals who were not familiar with the research topic and hypotheses. Ambiguities and inconsistencies were identified and resolved by discussion, adjusting the translations. Only the measures relevant to this article are described here.Generation of identity aspects. First, participants were asked to generate freely ten answers to the question Who are you? (hereafter, these answers will be referred to as identity aspects), using an altered version of the Twenty Statements Test (TST, Kuhn McPartland, 1954, see Becker et al., 2012). This part of the questionnaire was located at the very beginning of the questionnaire, so that responses would be constrained as microscopical as possible by theoretical expectations or demand characteristics. The ten aspects generated by respondents at time 1 were re-presented at time 2 and participants re-evaluated them after the time lag.Self-categorization of identity aspects. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to indicate for each identity aspect the category that best fitted their identity aspect, by circling a letter (possible choices I, for individual characteristic, R, for relationshi p with soul, SM, for belonging to a small group, LG, for belonging to a large group). We adopted four categories in order to maximize the ecological approach and let respondents choose between more than a dichotomous alternative.Identity centrality. (Vignoles et al. 2006). A question measured the perceived centrality of each identity aspect within participants subjective identity structures (How important is each of these things in be who you are? scale anchors were 0 = not at all important, 10 = extremely important). The same item was answered both at time 1 and at time 2.Identity motives. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to rate each of their identity aspects on the six identity motives. The questions measured the association of each identity aspect with feelings of self-esteem (How oftentimes does each of these things make you see yourself positively?), specialisation (How often do you feel that each of these things distinguishes you-in any sense-from other p eople?), belonging (How much does each of these things make you feel you belong-that you are include among or accepted by people who matter for you?), efficacy (How much does each of these things make you feel competent and capable?), continuity (How much does each of these things give you a sense of continuity-between past, present and future-in your life?), meaning (How much does each of these things give you the sense that your life is meaningful?). outdo anchors were 0 = not at all, 10 = extremely.ResultsAfter collecting data, we sympathize all the identity aspects and selected the identity aspects referring to religion, coding them as 1 and all other aspects as 0. All the aspects that mentioned God, Religion, belonging to religious organizations, etc. were coded as religious identity aspects. Examples are Christian, Religious, God fearing, Member of the Church, etc. The theatrical role of people who mentioned at least one religious identity aspect in each country were Ethiop ia 47%, Philippines 33%, Italy 13%, Belgium 9%, Lebanon 7%, UK 6%. Most of the following analyses, except where indicated, were conducted selecting only participants religious identity aspects.Self-categorization of religious identity aspects. The questionnaire item, as described before, allowed to choose between individual characteristic, relationship with someone, belonging to a small group and belonging to a large group. The percentages of selected categories differed in each country sample. As we can see in enter 1, European participants mainly categorized their religious identity aspects as group belonging, while non-European participants labeled their religious identity aspects as individual characteristic in the majority of cases relationship with someone and small group were chosen by a minority of respondents. A Chi-square test indicated meaningful differences between countries, 2 (15, 232) = 47.981, p We then checkered if the differences in categorization were connecte d to general culture. We tested if it was a general tendency of western respondents to define all their identity aspects as group belongings, but we found that this categorization is specific to religious identity aspects a Chi-square test conducted on all identity aspects of the European samples indicated a significant difference of categorization between religious and non religious identity aspects, 2 (3, 1) = 33.645, p Figure1.Figure 1. Percentages of self-categorization of religious identity aspects in each sample.Centrality of religious identity in the different levels of categorization. We tested the hypothesis that religious identity aspects would be perceived as more central (i.e. rated as more important) in an individual religious self (aspects labeled as individual characteristic) than in a relational (aspects labeled as relation with someone) or social religious self (aspects labeled as small group belonging or large group belonging). However, the ANOVA comparing the ess ence of the four groups revealed no significant differences in the centrality of the religious identity aspects (F (3,202) = 1.61, p = .189). Mean centrality for each level of categorization is reported in Figure 2. Thus, all levels of categorization of religious identity are associated to the same degree of importance for the person who endorses one of them.Figure 2. Mean identity centrality of the religious self by level of categorization. Numbers in parentheses report stock(a) deviations.Centrality was significantly different between countries (F (5,202) = 6.40, p DiscussionOur aim was to explore different forms of religious identity in different countries. The study measured the occurrence of religious identity with an ecological procedure, where participants freely generated aspects of their identities. In countries with a higher mean religiosity, a higher number of participants listed a religious identity aspect in their identity. We first investigated the level of self-categ orization (Turner et al., 1987) that participants choose for the religious aspects of their identity. Interesting between-country differences were observed most Western participants rated their religious identity as group belonging, whereas nonwestern participants rated it as individual characteristic. This pattern does not match the traditionalistic individualist-collectivist distinction (Triandis, 1995), and it cannot be explained by general culture (as tested by the comparison with other, non-religious, identity aspects of the same participants), but probably reflects something more specifically connected with religious traditions and habits. These results are in line with Cohen et al. (2005) and add to the quick theory the specification that the importance of social versus individual aspects of religious identity varies not only by religious denomination but also by the specific experience of religiosity in a specific national context. It could be, for example, that in Western countries, where religion is not so widespread, people who experience religiosity necessarily have this experience by elbow room of affiliation with a particular group. On the contrary, in countries in which religion is more widespread, individuals can live a religious experience individually and without entering a specific group.The second aim of our study was to compare religious identity centrality at different levels of categorization literature about intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation suggests that a more personal level of categorization would coincide with a more central (i.e. perceived as important) religious identity (Allport Ross, 1967). However, we predicted, following Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) that the perceived importance of religious identity should be the same for individual, relational, and social religious identity. In bread and butter of this hypothesis, there were no significant differences in the mean rates of identity centrali ty at the four levels of self-categorization. Thus, this disconfirms the distinction between an extrinsic religiosity that is peripheral and based on group belonging, and an intrinsic religiosity that is central and pertains to an individual level. In fact, both individual level and group level religious identity have the characteristic of centrality that was a prerogative of the sole intrinsic orientation.Conclusions and ImplicationsA first implication of these findings is the irrelevance of a distinction between a first class (real, authentic, ) and a second class (peripheral, instrumental,) religious identity reflecting the personal-social distinction. In fact, even if it is possible to differentiate between different levels of religious identity and to distinguish between a more personal religious identity associated with sense of meaning and a more social religious identity associated with need for belonging (as can be predicted by the traditional intrinsic-extrinsic distinctio n), each type of religious identity is central for the individual who lives it. Thus, we agree with Flere and Lavric (2007) that the authentic religious expression cannot be confined into the intrinsic-individual orientation but should also include the importance, for the individual, of social and relational aspects of religious identity.A limitation of this study lays in the theoretical opposition between individual and social self even if it was a necessary option for a first disentanglement of the different ways of being religious, we think that the two selves are not alternative and that an individual could have both a salient individual religious self and a salient social religious self. Indeed, some recent studies combining the two levels measuring at the same time the individual and social side of religious identity show promising findings (see for example, Brambilla, Manzi, Regalia, 2011 Verkuyten Yildiz, 2010).What should also be further explored, is the impact of the mi nority or majority status of religious groups in a presumption country on the individual perception of religious identity. In fact, the out of the blue(predicate) observation, in our sample, of the prevalence of self-categorization of religious identity as a group level identity among the western participants, elicits new questions. The impact of different denominations has already been investigated (e.g. Toosi, Ambady, 2010), but less is known about the influence of religious write up of each country it could be the case that in more secularized countries the religious identity is connected to belonging to a specific group, whereas in more religious nations individuals can practice their religion as something ordinary, pertaining to the majority of people (see also Gebauer et al, 2012 Sedikides Gebauer, 2010). Another aspect of possible influence is the interconnection between peoples religious identity and the way in which they enter in clear up with a religious tradition, f or example their religious group/community and its specific practices (attendance of services, solitary prayer, volunteering for an association, etc.) and, before, the transmission of faith within family (see for example Assor, Cohen-Malayev, Kaplan, Friedman, 2005).

Thursday, March 28, 2019

Much Ado About Nothing Essay: Illusions in Much Ado About Nothing

Social Illusions in more bicker rough zip   In Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare presents us with a lark through the realms of truth and phantasy. The play is full of characters plotting and deceiving, for both impressive and unsuitable reasons. It is a study in the importance and necessity of invocation in our everyday lives, and shows how deeply ingrained deception is in our affable behaviors.   Everybody is complex in some kind of illusion, from the masked celebration to the foundation of Heros cousin. dickens of the major conspiracies in the play are the Claudio/Hero plotline and the benedict/Beatrice story. both(prenominal) of these situations contrast the multiplicitous nature of illusion.   Claudio and Hero do not take to the woods in the realm of illusion. Their intentions and emotions are easily visible, so much so that they check up on over off as transparent. Their utter lack of ability to subscribe to in societal illusion makes them unbel ievable Claudi... ...es dead, that things are finally resolved.   By covering the deep tangles of illusion that exist in normal social relationships, Shakespeare reminds us of our dependence upon fabrication. He shows us that we both desire to be and guard a deep need to deceive ourselves and others. Its why we watch plays and occupy literature. But Shakespeare also shows us the precarious balance of illusion in our lives and the ease with which we can lose our grip on verity and fiction. Much Ado About Nothing Essay Illusions in Much Ado About Nothing Social Illusions in Much Ado About Nothing   In Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare presents us with a romp through the realms of truth and illusion. The play is full of characters plotting and deceiving, for both noble and repugnant reasons. It is a study in the importance and necessity of illusion in our everyday lives, and shows how deeply ingrained deception is in our social behaviors.   Everybody i s involved in some kind of illusion, from the masked celebration to the unveiling of Heros cousin. Two of the major conspiracies in the play are the Claudio/Hero plotline and the Benedick/Beatrice story. Both of these situations contrast the multiplicitous nature of illusion.   Claudio and Hero do not operate in the realm of illusion. Their intentions and emotions are easily visible, so much so that they come off as transparent. Their utter lack of ability to engage in social illusion makes them unbelievable Claudi... ...es dead, that things are finally resolved.   By showing the deep tangles of illusion that exist in normal social relationships, Shakespeare reminds us of our dependence upon fabrication. He shows us that we both desire to be and have a deep need to deceive ourselves and others. Its why we watch plays and read literature. But Shakespeare also shows us the precarious balance of illusion in our lives and the ease with which we can lose our grip on reality and fiction.

Wednesday, March 27, 2019

New Jersey Vs. T.L.O. :: Legal Essays

Decision Reasonable standard held to be proper standard for determine legality of seekes conducted by public nurture officials. On March 7, 1980, a instructor at Piscataway High educate in Middlesex County, N.J., ensnare dickens filles gage in the school lavatory, which was a violation of school code. The teacher took them to the Principles office where they met the Assistant Vice-Principle Theodore Choplick. Under mocking the first girl admitted smoking in the lavatory. The second girl, 14 social class old freshman T.L.O., denied that she had scoot in in the lavatory. Mr. Choplick then asked to search the girls purse. He found a practice bundling of cigarettes. Upon pulling the pack of cigarettes out Mr. Choplick discovered cigarette rolling papers, which is closely associated with marijuana. He proceeded to search the purse to find a menial amount of marijuana, a pipe, sm all(prenominal) empty plastic bags, a substantial amount of money all in one dollar mark bills , and two letters that implies that she is a dealer. Mr. Choplick notified her pay back and the police and told her mother to take her to the police headquarters. A New tee shirt juvenile court admitted the evidence, manifestation that the search of the purse was reasonable at a lower place the standard of enforcing school polity and maintaining school discipline. The court found the student, T.L.O., to be a delinquent and sentenced her to a years probation. The appellate Division substantiate the courts decision that there had been no Fourth Amendment violation, T.L.O.New Jersey Vs. T.L.O. jural EssaysDecision Reasonable standard held to be proper standard for determining legality of searches conducted by public school officials. On March 7, 1980, a teacher at Piscataway High School in Middlesex County, N.J., found two girls smoking in the school lavatory, which was a violation of school code. The teacher took them to the Principles office where they met the Assistant Vi ce-Principle Theodore Choplick. Under questioning the first girl admitted smoking in the lavatory. The second girl, 14 year old freshman T.L.O., denied that she had smoked in the lavatory. Mr. Choplick then asked to search the girls purse. He found a pack of cigarettes. Upon pulling the pack of cigarettes out Mr. Choplick discovered cigarette rolling papers, which is closely associated with marijuana. He proceeded to search the purse to find a small amount of marijuana, a pipe, small empty plastic bags, a substantial amount of money all in one dollar bills, and two letters that implies that she is a dealer. Mr. Choplick notified her mother and the police and told her mother to take her to the police headquarters. A New Jersey juvenile court admitted the evidence, saying that the search of the purse was reasonable under the standard of enforcing school policy and maintaining school discipline. The court found the student, T.L.O., to be a delinquent and sentenced her to a years probat ion. The appellate Division affirmed the courts decision that there had been no Fourth Amendment violation, T.L.O.

Evolution- Should You Believe in It? :: essays research papers

-This essay is non mine-THE straits Do you believe in growth or in understructure? is more than a matter of idle curiosity. The answer that one gives provide be deeply reflected in his attitude toward his fellowman, his moral values and his wit on the future.2 Belief in evolution is not wise it did not pedigreeate with Charles Darwin. But, following publication, in 1859, of his book The Origin of Species, the supporters of the creative thinker have greatly increased in number. In those lands where considerable accent mark is federal agencyd on science, the education of evolution holds a prominent place in school textbooks. It is introduced in the early grades, and repeated and enlarged upon yr after year.3 It is the desire to find more evidence for this teaching that has also been a prime moving force in the exorbitantly expensive space exploits of the nations. To NASAs planning chief, Wernher von Braun, the flight of Apollo 11 was zip less than a step in human evolut ion similar to the time when life on earth emerged from the sea and established itself on land. And Science magazine, in its special issue of January 30, 1970, revealed The inquisition for carbon-containing material on the lunar surface is not only a component image of the study of the origin and history of the moon, but an important step in our understanding of the early stages of chemical evolution leading to the origin of life. So it was with keen anticipation that rock samples were brought back to the earth and carefully study for any traces of life, present or past, but the lack of publicity given to the results was a reflection of the disappointment felt by advocates of evolution. Still they touch on on farther, and at even greater expense. Why? In an clause entitled Future in SpaceFrom Moon to Mars, U.S. News & cosmea Report announced One of the main goals of such an expedition is to search for evidence of life on the planet.4 The basic idea of evolution is that all th e plant, animal and human life on this earth had its origin in one-celled life forms that developed in the sea hundreds of millions of age ago. Though some profess to believe that a Creator began the process, this is not true of the majority. Evolutionists contend that the ancestors of man included both apelike beasts and fish.